Class 10

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 – The Making of a Global World

1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place in the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.

Solution: The following are examples of cross-cultural exchanges from Asia and the Americas:

a. The Silk Route (Asia): The silk routes are a good example of cross-cultural trade and connectivity between distant parts of the world. The name ‘silk routes’ points to the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes along this route.

Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Early Christian missionaries almost certainly travelled this route to Asia, as did early Muslim preachers a few centuries later.

b. Food from the Americas: The food that is part of our staple diet today like potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes etc. were not known to our ancestors until the accidental discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus.

These foods only made it to Europe and the rest of the world after this monumental discovery of the new continent.

2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.

Solutions: The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonization of the Americas. The reason was that the native Americans were not immune to the diseases that the European settlers brought with them. The Europeans were to a certain extent immune to the effects of diseases like smallpox due to centuries of exposure, but the native Americans had no such defence against this disease, as they were isolated from diseases native to the old world.

At times, settlers deliberately practised biological warfare on the natives by giving items laced with smallpox germs as ‘gifts of friendship’. The disease was far more effective in wiping out entire tribes and communities without having to resort to firearms.

3. Write a note to explain the effect of the following:

1. The British government’s decision to abolish the corn laws
2. The coming of rinderpest to Africa
3. The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War
4. The Great Depression on the Indian Economy
5. The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries

Solution:

1. The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws was due to pressure from the landed groups, who were unhappy with the high price of food and the cheap inflow of agricultural products from Australia and America. As a result, many English farmers left their profession and migrated to towns and cities. Some went overseas. This indirectly led to global agriculture and rapid urbanization, a prerequisite of industrial growth.
2. Rinderpest (a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague) arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. It had a terrifying impact on people’s livelihoods and the local economy. It started in East Africa and soon spread to the other parts of the continent. Within five years, it reached the Cape of Good Hope (Africa’s Southernmost tip) by which it had killed 90 % of the cattle population in that part of Africa. It spread through infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa. Using this situation to their advantage, colonizing nations conquered and subdued Africa by monopolizing scarce cattle resources to force Africans into the labour market. The Africans were forced to work for a wage due to the loss of their livelihood due to the effect of Rinderpest.
3. The First World War was the first modern industrial war. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons etc. on a massive scale. To fight such a war millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and moved to the frontlines on large ships and trains. The scale of death and destruction was unlike any other conflict in the modern era. Most of the killed and maimed were men of working age; the deaths and injuries of these men drastically reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe. Within fewer members within the family, household incomes declined after the war. Thus women stepped in to do the jobs that were earlier done by men. It increased the role of women led to a demand for equal status in society. It made the feminist movement even stronger.
4. In the nineteenth century, colonial India had become an exporter of agricultural goods and importer of manufactures. The impact of the Great Depression in India was felt, especially in the agricultural sector. It was evident that the Indian economy was closely becoming integrated into the global economy. India was a British colony and exported agricultural goods and imported manufactured goods. As international prices crashed so did the prices in India. The wheat prices in India fell by 50 % between 1928 and 1934.
5. Wages were relatively low in Asian countries like China. Thus, they became lucrative destinations for investment by foreign MNCs competing to dominate world markets. The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world trade and capital flow.

Impact of MNC’s decision to relocate production in Asian Countries was as follows:

a. It provided a cheap source of labour for MNCs

b. It stimulated world trade and increased capital inflow in the Asian Countries

c. The local population now had a greater choice of goods and services along with prospects of greater employment opportunities for them.

4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.

Solution:

1. Improved transportation systems: Improved transportation systems helped the foods get delivered on time to the markets without any harm. Faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food cheaply and quickly from faraway farms to final markets.
2. Refrigerated ships: The development of refrigerated ships enabled the transport of perishable foods over long distances. Animals were slaughtered for food at the starting point -in America, Australia or New Zealand – and then transported to Europe as frozen meat. This reduced shipping costs and lowered meat prices in Europe. The poor in Europe could now add meat to their diet, which was monotonous with only bread and potatoes.

5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

Solution: In order to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world, the post-war international economic system was established. To execute the same, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference was held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. The Bretton Woods Conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and shortages of its member-nations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was set up to financial post-war reconstruction, and they started the financial operations in 1947.

Under the agreement, currencies were pegged to the price of gold, and the US dollar was seen as a reserve currency linked to the price of gold. Decision-making authority was given to the Western industrial powers. The US was given the right of veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions. The Bretton Woods system was based on fixed exchange rates. The Bretton Woods system Opened an era of unique growth of trade and incomes for the Western industrial nations and Japan.

6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labour in the Carribean. Drawing from the details in the chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings

Solution: Dear Ma and Pa,

My work as an indentured labourer Jamaica is far from a walk in the park. Through this letter, I want to tell you about my life here.

When the contractor hired me, he was quite economical with the truth about the living and working conditions. To say nothing of the kind of work and place of work.

We have very few rights, with the contractor living up to the behaviour standards expected of them in the Carribean -extremely harsh. He treats us like animals since we are a minority and thus easy targets for his wrath. Accidents are common in the sugar plantations in Jamaica. One time I saw a worker burnt alive when the liquid sugar we were boiling accidentally spilt on him. Since he cannot work with his third-degree burns, the contractor saw it fit to throw him out without any due wages paid. We don’t have any rights to speak or to express our dissatisfaction about the working conditions. And if we do, we will face the overseer’s whips.

Whenever I do not attend my work, I am liable to be to jail. There is a lot of work at the plantations with a heavy workload and less time to finish it all.

In case of unsatisfactory work, my wages are cut. If there is hell on earth, it certainly is this. I know my writing will cause you anguish but rest assured there is the talk of new laws underway to protect labourers like us. Thus, this situation will pass soon.

7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, write a short account of it.

Solution: The three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange are trade flows, human capital flows and capital flows or investments. These can be explained as—the trade in agricultural products, migration of labour, and financial loans to and from other nations.

1. The flow of trade (trade in goods, e.g. cloth or wheat):

India was a hub of trade in the pre-modern world, and it exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver from Europe.

Fine cotton was produced in India and was exported to Europe. With industrialization, British cotton manufacture began to expand, and industrialists pressurized the government to restrict cotton imports and protect local industries. As a result of the tariffs that were imposed on cloth imports, the inflow of fine Indian Cotton began to decline.

2. The flow of labour (the migration of people in search of employment):

In the field of labour, indentured labour was provided for mines, plantations and factories abroad, in huge numbers, in the nineteenth century. This was an instrument of colonial domination by the British. Indentured labourers were hired under contacts which promised return travel to India after they had worked five years on their employer’s plantation. The living conditions were harsh, and the labourers had little protection of the law or from it as they had little rights.

3. The movement of capital (investments) :

Lastly, Britain took generous loans from the USA to finance the World War. Since India was an English colony, the impact of these loan debts was felt in India too. Food and other crops for the world market required capital. Large plantations could borrow it from banks and markets.

8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression

Solution: The Great Depression was a result of many factors:

1. Agriculture overproduction was a major problem. As a result, agricultural prices fell. As prices fell, so did agricultural incomes. This increased the volume of goods in the market. The situation got worsened in the market. Prices fell down further. Farm produce began to rot due to the lack of buyers.
2. Prosperity in the USA during the 1920s created a cycle of higher employment and incomes. It led to a rise in consumption and demands. More investment and more employment created tendencies of speculations which led to the Great Depression of 1929 up to the mid-1930s. The stock market crashed in 1929. It created panic among investors and depositors who stopped investing and depositing. As a result, it created a cycle of depreciation.
3. The withdrawal of US loans affected the rest of the world in many different ways. In Europe, it led to the failure of the major banks and the collapse of major currencies such as the British pound sterling. Some of the banks closed down when people withdrew all their assets, leaving them unable to invest. Some banks called back loans taken from them at the same dollar rate, in spite of the falling value of the dollar.

9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

Solution: After the Second World War, many parts of the world were still under European colonial rule, and it took over two decades for the colonies in Asia and Africa to become free independent nations. When they became free, they faced many other problems such as poverty, lack of resources, etc. Economies and societies were handicapped for being under colonial rule for long periods.

As colonies, many of the less developed regions of the world had been part of Western empires. The policy of the Bretton Woods twins tilted more in favour of the developed nations of the Western world. Now, ironically, as newly independent countries facing urgent pressures to lift their populations out of poverty, they came under the guidance of international agencies dominated by the former colonial powers.

Therefore these colonies organised themselves as a group – the Group of 77 (or G-77) – to demand a new international economic order (NIEO). By the NIEO they meant a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goods in developed countries’ markets.

 

                                                 Class 9th 

NCERT Solutions – Social Science History Unit 2

Exercise Page No. 48

1. What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before

1905?

Answer:

Social Condition:

Workers were a divided group. Some had strong links with the villages; others had settled permanently in cities. Workers were divided based on their skills. The division among workers reflected in their dress and manners too.

Economic Condition:

Most industries were the private property of industrialists. Government supervised large factories. The industry was found in pockets. Many factories were set up in the 1890s when Russia’s railway network was extended, foreign investment in industry increased, coal production had doubled, and iron and steel output quadrupled. Most industries were the private property of industrialists.

Political condition:

Russia was an autocracy. Unlike other European countries, The Tsar was not subject to a Parliament. Liberals in Russia campaigned to end this state of affairs.

Socialist Revolutionary Party struggled for Peasants rights

1905 was the year when the incident of ‘Bloody Sunday’ took place. 100 workers were killed, and about 300 were wounded. Bloody Sunday started a series of events that became known as the 1905 revolution.

2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?

Answer:

The vast majority of Russia’s population were agriculturists. About 85 per cent of Russian empires population earned their living from Agriculture. This proportion was higher than in most European countries. In France and Germany, the proportion was between 40 per cent and 50 per cent. Cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs and Russia was a major exporter of grain.

3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Answer:

After 1905, most trade unions and factory committees were declared illegal. There were restrictions on political activity. The Tsar dismissed the first 2 Dumas very quickly because he did not want his authority and powers to be questioned. The third Duma was filled with Conservative politicians. During the 1st world war, the tsar started taking unilateral decisions without consulting the Duma. While Russian soldiers were retreating from the war, large swathes of agricultural lands were burnt and buildings destroyed by them on the orders of Tsar. Millions of soldiers have also died in the battle. The large majority of the population were peasants, and the land was under the control of a few private people. All these factors led to the rise of revolution and the collapse of Tsar autocracy.

4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history.

Answer:

Main events of February Revolution:

1. In February 1917, there was a shortage of food items in workers quarters.
2. On February 22, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank. The workers in fifty factories called a strike and women played a very critical role in these strikes. This day went on to be named as International Women’s Day.
3. On February 25, the government suspended the Duma.
4. On February 27, Police headquarters were ransacked, people were demonstrating and raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours and democracy.
5. Petrograd Soviet was formed.
6. Tsar abdicated on March 2, Monarchy was formed in Feb 1917.
7. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country.

Effects of the February Revolution:

1. Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
2. ‘Soviets’ like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed.
3. The number of trade unions increased.
4. In Industrial areas, factory committees were formed to question the way industrialists ran their factories.
5. Soldiers committees were formed in the Army.
6. The Bolsheviks’ influence kept growing, and the provisional government saw its power reducing.
7. Land committees were formed to handle redistribution of land, which was a popular demand for peasants and their socialist revolutionary leaders in the countryside.

Main events of the October Revolution:

As the conflict between the provisional government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin feared the Provisional Government would set up a dictatorship. Lenin began discussions for an uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the Army, Soviets and factories were brought together. On 16th October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A military revolutionary committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotsky to organize the seizure. The uprising began on 24th October 1917. Military men who were loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-Government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace. In retaliation, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. A ship named Aurora bombed the Winter Palace, other ships sailed down the Neva and took over various military positions. By the end of the month, the city was under the control of committee and ministers had resigned. By December, Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

Effects of the October Revolution.

1. Industries and banks were nationalised by November 1917; Government took over ownership and management.
2. The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
3. In the cities, The Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
4. Old titles of the aristocracy were banned.
5. New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
6. Bolshevik Party was renamed as the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)
7. Bolsheviks conducted elections to the constituent assembly; however, they failed to attain the majority. The assembly rejected the Bolshevik measures, and Lenin dismissed the assembly.
8. All Russian Congress of Soviets became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state.
9. Trade unions were kept under party control. The Secret Police punished anyone who criticised the Bolsheviks. Many young artists and writers continued to support the Party, as it stood for Socialism.
10. Many experiments were done in Arts and Architecture. But many were unhappy because of the censorship.

5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?

Answer:

1. Industries and banks were nationalised by November 1917; Government took over ownership and management.
2. The land was declared as a social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
3. In the cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
4. Old titles of the aristocracy were banned.
5. New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
6. Bolshevik Party was renamed as the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)
7. Bolsheviks conducted elections to the constituent assembly; however, they failed to attain the majority, Assembly rejected the Bolshevik measures, and Lenin dismissed the assembly.
8. All Russian Congress of Soviets became Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state.
9. Trade unions were kept under party control, the Secret Police punished anyone who criticised the Bolsheviks. Many young artists and writers continued to support the Party as it stood for Socialism.
10. Many experiments were done in Arts and Architecture. But many artists were unhappy because of the censorship.

6. Write a few lines to show what you know about:

Kulaks

Answer:

1. Wealthy peasants who Stalin believed were hoarding the grains to gain more profit.
2. When the towns faced acute shortage of grains, Kulaks were thought to be responsible behind it.
3. Stalin thought it was necessary to eliminate them so that farms could be modernised.

The Duma

Answer:

In 1905, Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and re-elected the second Duma within three months. The Tsar did not want anyone to question his authority or undermine and reduce his powers. The Tsar changed the voting laws and packed the Third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.

Women workers between 1900 and 1930

Answer:

1. Their wages were less than the wages of men.
2. They formed 31% of the factory workforce.

The Liberals

Answer:

1. They considered all religions as equal.
2. They believed only men who have property had the right to vote
3. They wanted an elected form of Parliamentary governance.

Stalin’s collectivisation programme.

Answer:

1. He began this program in 1929.
2. He believed this program would help in improving grain supplies.
3. All peasants were forced to cultivate in collective farms called ‘Kolkhoz’.
4. On the contrary, this worsened the food supply situation.

 

                             Nationalism in India

NCERT Solutions – Social Science History Chapter 2

Exercise Page No. 50

Write in Brief:

1. Explain:

a. Why the growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement.

Answer:

1. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
2. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
3. But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently. Their experiences were varied and their notions of freedom were not always the same. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement. But the unity did not emerge without conflict.

b. How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India.

Answer:

War created a new political and economic situation.

1. Led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: custom duties were increased and income tax introduced.
2. Forced recruitment in villages caused widespread anger.
3. Crops failed; this resulted in an acute shortage of food.
4. 12 to 13 million people died due to famines and epidemics.

c. Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act.

Answer:

1. Rowlatt Act was introduced in 1919.
2. This act was hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council, although it was completely opposed by Indian members.
3. It had given the Government enormous powers to repress political activities.
4. It allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

d. Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Answer:

In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He felt the movement was turning violent in many places, and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles.

2. What is meant by the idea of satyagraha?

Answer:

The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then the physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without seeking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence. This could be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. People – including the oppressors – had to be persuaded to see the truth, instead of being forced to accept truth through the use of violence. By this struggle, the truth was bound to triumph ultimately. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

3. Write a newspaper report on

a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre

Answer:

On 13 April, the infamous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a large crowd was gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh. Some came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures. Others had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed. Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. His objective, as he declared later, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, in the minds of Satyagrahis. A feeling of terror and awe.

b) The Simon Commission

Answer:

When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back, Simon’. All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations. In an effort to win them over, the viceroy, Lord Irwin, announced in October 1929, a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India in an unspecified future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution. This did not satisfy the Congress leaders.

4. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.

Answer:

Germania:

1. Symbol of Germany
2. The image was painted by Philip Veit in 1848.
3. Carrying a sword in one hand and flag in another hand
4. Germania is wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Bharat Mata:

1. Symbol of India
2. Painted by Abanindranath Tagore in 1905
3. Bharat is standing with a Trishul, standing beside a lion and elephant, symbols of power and authority.

Discuss

1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.

Answer:

Below is the list of different social groups who joined the Non-Cooperation Movement and their struggles.

Middle-Class participation in cities:-

Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices. The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras, where the Justice Party, the party of the non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some power – something that usually only Brahmans had access to. The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, and foreign cloth was burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places, merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up. But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. Similarly, the boycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

Peasants and Tribals:-

In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses from peasants. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords’ farms without any payment. As tenants, they had no security of tenure, being regularly evicted so that they could acquire no right over the leased land. The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, the abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places ‘nai-dhobi bandhs’ were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of barbers and washermen.

Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of swaraj in yet another way. In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, for instance, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s – not a form of struggle that the Congress could approve. In other forest regions, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoods affected, but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied. When the government began forcing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted.

Workers in the Plantations:-

Workers too had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and the notion of swaraj. For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact, they were rarely given such permission. When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages. They, however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

2. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.

Answer:

Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. Some of these were of general interest; others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialists to peasants. The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging so that all classes within Indian society could identify with them and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign. The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.

Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by Swaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British. On 6 April he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling seawater.

Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government salt factories. As the movement spread, the foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and chowkidar taxes, village officials resigned, and in many places, forest people violated forest laws – going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the experience meant to your life.

Answer:

Students are advised to put themselves in the shoes of women and share the experience.

4. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

Answer:

Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for Dalits. When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position, and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab). Negotiations over the question of representation continued, but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise.

 Class 9th

NCERT Solutions – Social Science History Chapter 1

Exercise Page No. 24

1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.

Answer:

When King Louis XVI was anointed as the new king, he found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. On top of this, there was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the Palace of Versailles. France had helped the thirteen American colonies gain their independence from their common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion lives to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion lives. Lenders who gave credit began to charge 10 per cent interest on loans. So the French Government had to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone. To meet its regular expenses, such as cost of maintaining an army, the court, governmental offices and Universities were increasingly becoming difficult. Raising taxes did not suffice, because the French society was divided into 3 estates and only the 3rd estate had to pay taxes. The 1st estate and the 2nd estate did not pay any taxes. The population of France was also growing massively. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with demand. So the price of bread, which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops, whose owner fixed their wages. But the wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the rich and the poor widened. All these factors led to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

2. Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?

Answer:

French society was divided into 3 estates. The third estate benefitted the most. The third estate consisted of Peasants, artisans, Small peasants, landless labour, servants, big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers etc. The groups that were forced to relinquish power were the people belonging to the 1st and 2nd estate. These people had enjoyed certain privileges by birth. With the revolution, the people in 1st and 2nd estate lost their privileges. Because inequality was one of the root causes of the revolution, the revolution tried to bring equality to society.

3. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Answer:

The ideas of liberty and democratic rights are the most important legacies of the French revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished. Colonised people reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation-state. Tipu Sultan and Ram Mohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas originating from Revolutionary France.

4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.

Answer:

The list of democratic rights are

1.     Freedom of speech

2.     Freedom of expression

3.     Freedom of press

4.     Abolition of censorship

5.     Right to vote

6.     Abolition of slavery

7.     Right to liberty

8.     Right to property

9.     Right to security

10.  Right to education

11.  Divorce laws

5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.

Answer:

Though it says ‘Universal Rights’, women were unfortunately left out from the basic rights that were promised. They did not have equal rights that men enjoyed. They did not have the right to liberty, property, security and above all, the resistance to oppression. In the formulation of laws, women did not have any representation. Women were not entitled to all the honours and public employment, according to their abilities.

 

6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?

Answer:

Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He started conquering neighbouring countries by waging wars against them. He saw himself as a moderniser of Europe. He introduced many laws, such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system. Many of his measures carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to the other parts of Europe. This had a positive impact on people long after he was dethroned as an emperor when he was finally defeated in the Battle of Waterloo.

 

 

NCERT Solutions – Social Science History Chapter 1

Exercise Page No. 28

1. Write a note on:

a. Guiseppe Mazzini

Answer:

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for the unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for the dissemination of his goals.

b. Count Camillo de Cavour

Answer:

1. Led the movement to unify Italy
2. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
3. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance engineered by Cavour, Sardini-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

c. The Greek war of independence

Answer:

1. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks, which began in 1821.
2. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
3. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans, who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
4. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

d. Frankfurt parliament

Answer:

1. It was an all-German National assembly formed by Middle-Class professionals, businessmen and prosperous Artisans belonging to different German regions.
2. It was convened on 18 May 1848.
3. It was disbanded on 31 May 1849 as it lost support.

e. The role of women in nationalist struggles

Answer:

1. Women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
2. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.

2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Answer:

1. The ideas of ‘La Patrie’ (the fatherland) and ‘Le Citoyen’ (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
3. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
4. A centralised administrative system was put in place, and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
5. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
6. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
7. The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism. In other words, to help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Answer:

Female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation.

1. Marianne, a popular Christian name – underlined the idea of a people’s nation.
2. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
3. The image of Marianne was marked on coins and stamps.

Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer:

1. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.
2. Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large landowners called Junkers of Prussia. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor.
3. Importance was given to modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.’

5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Answer:

The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all the privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified the administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform law, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Discuss:

1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer:

1. In the year 1848, parallel to the revolts of the poor, another revolution was happening underway.  Led by the educated middle classes,  the unemployed, the starving peasants and workers in many European countries experienced this revolution of the liberals. Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
2. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
3. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
4. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and had taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.

2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer:

Language:

Language played a very important role. After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools, and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The Clergy in Poland began using language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Romanticism:

It was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focussed instead on emotions, intuition and mystic feelings. They tried to portray a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.

Folk poetry, folk dance, folk songs:

The true spirit of the nation was popularised through the above means. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was an essential part of nation-building.

3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer:

Focus countries – Germany and Italy.

Germany

1. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.
2. Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large landowners called the ‘Junkers of Prussia’. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, the Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor.
3. Importance was given to modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.

Italy

1. During the 1830s, Mazzini sought to unify Italy. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’, and It had failed. Hence, the responsibility fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II, to unify Italian states through war.
2. Austrian forces were defeated in 1859. Apart from Sardinia-Piedmont, a large number of volunteers had joined the cause under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1860, they marched to South Italy and managed to defeat Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of Italy.

4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer:

1. Formation of the nation-state was not due to sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
2. The primary identities of people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
3. The Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Scottish people were forbidden from speaking their Gaelic language and from wearing their national dress. Many were driven out of their homeland.
4. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in 1801. This was achieved by the English helping the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over the Catholics.
5. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God save our Noble King) and the English language were actively promoted, and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer:

1. It was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro who were broadly known as Slavs.
2. A large part was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Gradually independence was declared from them.
3. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.